Journal of Learning Theory and Methodology

Methods for Estimating Sample Size in Structural Equation Modeling

2026-08-13T20:23:00+03:00

Background. Sample size estimation in Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) remains a debated methodological issue. Although minimum sample size rules are widely used, they often lack integration of theoretical, statistical, and practical considerations, particularly in complex research designs.

Objectives. This study aims to provide a synthesis and comparative analysis of different approaches to sample size estimation in SEM, integrating theoretical foundations, statistical criteria, methodological limitations, and applied research contexts.

Materials and Methods. A multi-method approach was employed, consisting of three components: a narrative review of sample size estimation methods, consideration of simulated scenarios reflecting realistic research conditions, and a comparative evaluation of method performance across these scenarios.

Results. Findings show that rule-of-thumb approaches are useful for preliminary estimates but may misrepresent required sample sizes in complex models. Power analysis provides more precise and rigorous estimates, particularly for confirmatory research. Monte Carlo simulations offer robust guidance for complex, longitudinal, and multigroup models. Estimator-based recommendations highlight the importance of aligning sample size with data characteristics and estimation techniques. Model complexity emerged as a key determinant, with advanced SEM models often requiring 400–700+ participants.

Conclusions. A systematic and context-sensitive approach to sample size estimation is essential for ensuring robustness and methodological rigor in SEM studies across disciplines such as management and education.

Motor Function as a Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Fundamental Movement Skills

2026-06-15T12:33:02+03:00

Purpose. To substantiate motor function as a functional system underlying the development of human motor activity, to determine the place of fundamental movement skills within its structure, and to develop a conceptual model of motor function development.

Material and Methods. The study was theoretical and methodological in nature and was conducted as a conceptual narrative review. The methodological foundation was based on conceptual analysis and knowledge synthesis. The materials included classical and contemporary scholarly works addressing motor function, motor control, motor development, motor learning, and fundamental movement skills. Historical-logical analysis, content analysis of scientific sources, comparative analysis, systems analysis, and conceptual modeling were employed.

Results. Motor function was conceptualized as an integrative functional system formed through the interaction of motor abilities, motor control mechanisms, sensory support systems, and motor experience. Motor control was identified as the central component of motor function, with its development progressing from the accurate reproduction of movement parameters to the differentiation of spatial, temporal, and force characteristics of movement actions. Fundamental movement skills were interpreted not as the foundation of motor development but as a form of motor function development and a mechanism for the accumulation of motor experience. A conceptual model of motor function development and a functional classification of fundamental movement skills were proposed, comprising stabilization, spatial orientation, temporal organization of movement, motor control, and adaptation. Programming was substantiated as the mechanism for the purposeful development of motor function.

Conclusions. Motor function represents the system-forming construct of motor development, integrating motor abilities, motor control mechanisms, sensory support systems, and motor experience in the process of solving motor tasks. Fundamental movement skills should be interpreted as a form of motor function development, whereas programming serves as the mechanism for its purposeful formation. The proposed framework expands the explanatory potential of contemporary Fundamental Movement Skills, Motor Competence, and Physical Literacy approaches.

The “Release Illusion”: A Conceptual Model of Motor Skill Formation in Archery

2026-08-24T17:35:41+03:00

Background. In archery, the final phase of the shot (release) is traditionally considered a controllable action. However, high-level performance indicates that attempts to consciously control this phase reduce stability and are associated with disruptions such as target panic. This creates a contradiction between the conventional interpretation of release as a controlled action and the actual mechanisms underlying effective performance.

Objectives. To develop a conceptual model of motor skill formation in archery that explains the emergence of release as an automated event, defines the conditions for stable shot execution, and identifies the mechanisms underlying skill disruption.

Materials and Methods. The study has a conceptual and theoretical character and is based on the analysis and synthesis of scientific and methodological literature in sport theory, motor learning, and movement psychology, as well as on the generalization of practical coaching experience in archery. A systems approach to movement analysis and conceptual modeling methods were applied.

Results. The shooting action is interpreted as an integrated functional system in which performance stability depends on the coordination of subsystems rather than the accuracy of individual elements. Two subsystems are identified: the aiming system and the execution system, whose functional separation is essential for stability. Release is not considered a discrete controlled action but emerges as an automated event when the execution system reaches a critical functional state. Skill disruption is explained as a transition from a program-based to a reactive mode of action due to conscious interference in the final phase. Follow-through is defined as a stabilizing phase that ensures the formation of sensorimotor feedback.

Conclusions. Shot stability is ensured by preserving the integrity of the motor program and maintaining the functional separation between aiming and execution systems. Release serves as an indicator of a correctly organized action rather than an object of control. Skill disruption is associated with a shift to a reactive mode of organization. The proposed model generalizes the principles of the Ukrainian school of archery and provides a framework for application in other complex coordination activities.

Development and Validation of ComicSIM on Volcanic Activity With a PISA-Aligned Assessment Tool

2026-08-16T22:25:03+03:00

Objectives. Comic-based instructional materials demonstrate measurable gains in student engagement and scientific literacy; yet few studies integrate comic formats with Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) and PISA-aligned assessment for Earth Science in Philippine secondary schools. This study developed and validated ComicSIM, a comic-based SIM on volcanic activity for Grade 9 Science, alongside a PISA-aligned assessment tool comprising 20 items across eight lessons.

Materials and methods. A descriptive-developmental design was used. Five expert jurors holding graduate qualifications in science education or curriculum development, with at least five years of professional experience, independently evaluated both instruments. ComicSIM was assessed across seven sub-criteria using a 5-point rubric; inter-rater agreement was measured using Fleiss’ Kappa. The PISA-aligned assessment tool was evaluated using a 15-item alignment instrument with a 4-point scale; internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha.

Results. ComicSIM achieved a weighted mean of 4.5 (Excellent) and a Fleiss’ Kappa of 0.70 (substantial agreement). The PISA-aligned assessment tool obtained an alignment mean of 3.8 (Strongly Agree), a dimension mean of 4.93 (Excellent), and a Kappa of 0.87 (almost perfect agreement). Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.88 confirmed strong internal consistency.

Conclusions. Both instruments are expert-validated, reliable, and suitable for use in advancing PISA-aligned scientific literacy instruction in Philippine secondary science classrooms, pending confirmation of classroom effectiveness through empirical research

Data Literacy and Computational Thinking Among Secondary Science Teachers: A Quantitative Study of Levels, Differences and Instructional Integration

2026-08-17T23:42:14+03:00

Objectives. This study examined the levels of data literacy (DL) and computational thinking (CT) skills among secondary science teachers, the extent of their integration into science instruction, and the relationships between these competencies and instructional integration.

Materials and methods. Using a descriptive-correlational design, 53 secondary science teachers in Masbate, Philippines, completed three researcher-developed Likert-type instruments measuring DL, CT, and DL-CT integration into science instruction. Data were analyzed using means and standard deviations, the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test, and Spearman rank-order correlation.

Results. Teachers rated themselves Proficient in both DL (M = 3.92, SD = 0.63) and CT (M = 3.84, SD = 0.64), with a statistically significant difference between the two, W = 288.00, p = .040, r = .28. Teachers reported a Highly Integrated level of DL-CT instructional integration (M = 3.90, SD = 0.82). Spearman correlations revealed strong positive associations of both DL (rs = .740) and CT (rs = .757) with integration, both p < .001, with algorithmic thinking emerging as the single strongest correlate (rs = .785).

Conclusion. Secondary science teachers demonstrated proficient but uneven data literacy and computational thinking skills, with abstraction and access to computational tools emerging as relative weaknesses. Both competencies played a substantial and complementary role in supporting integrated science instruction, and targeted professional development addressing these weaker areas is recommended.

When Usefulness Outweighs Norms: Predictors of Generative Artificial Intelligence Use in a Mobile-First Teacher Education Context

2026-08-19T17:49:37+03:00

Background. Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) tools are increasingly integrated into higher education, yet the factors driving their adoption among pre-service teachers remain underexplored in Southeast Asian contexts.

Objectives. This study investigated predictors of generative AI use among 118 pre-service science teachers at a state college in Masbate, Philippines. Drawing on the Technology Acceptance Model, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, and the Theory of Planned Behavior, five constructs were examined: Perceived Usefulness, Attitude Toward AI, Effort Expectancy, Facilitating Conditions, and Subjective Norms.

Materials and method. A quantitative descriptive-predictive design with stratified random sampling was used. Data were collected using a validated 32-item instrument and analyzed using four multiple linear regression models.

Results. Generative AI use was rated high (M = 3.67, SD = 0.72). Perceived Usefulness (M = 3.79), Attitude Toward AI (M = 3.71), and Effort Expectancy (M = 3.75) were rated high, while Facilitating Conditions (M = 3.44) and Subjective Norms (M = 3.35) were rated moderate. Across all four models (F = 50.47 to 67.14, p < .001), Perceived Usefulness was the sole predictor consistently significant at p < .001 (β = 0.443 to 0.479), explaining 63.9 to 64.6% of the variance (R² = 0.639 to 0.646). Attitude Toward AI and Effort Expectancy reached significance in selected model configurations. Multicollinearity was within acceptable limits (VIF = 1.40 to 4.76).

Conclusion. These correlational findings, drawn from a single institutional sample, point to the primacy of perceived usefulness in technology adoption. As a hypothesis for future confirmation, teacher education programs may benefit from demonstrating the practical value of generative AI in science instruction.

Critical Challenges to the Sustainable Development of University Sports Facilities in the African Context: Leisure, Policy, Infrastructure, and Leadership

2026-08-24T16:08:17+03:00

Background. The sustainable development of university sports facilities is crucial for athletic performance, student engagement, and long-term institutional sustainability. In Ethiopian universities, this development is hindered by inadequate infrastructure and maintenance, weak policy implementation, limited financial resources, low leisure participation, and insufficient leadership and management capacity.

Study purpose. The purpose of this study was to examine the key factors affecting the sustainable development of university sports facilities in Ethiopia, focusing on infrastructure, policy and governance, leadership and management capacity, financial sustainability, and leisure activity participation.

Materials and methods. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 100 purposively selected athletes, coaches, facility managers, administrators, finance officers, and policy personnel across Ethiopian public universities. Data were collected using a validated 42-item questionnaire covering six variables. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) confirmed construct validity (KMO = 0.812, 68.4% of variance explained), and scale reliability was high (overall α = 0.819). Statistical power was verified using G*Power (1 − β > 0.99). Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and multiple linear regression with regression diagnostics (VIF and residual analysis) were performed.

Results. Mean scores revealed low to moderate performance across facility infrastructure (M = 2.74), leisure participation (M = 2.69), policy and governance (M = 2.62), leadership capacity (M = 2.61), sustainable facility development (M = 2.56), and financial sustainability (M = 2.50). Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that the five predictor domains collectively accounted for 71.0% of the variance in sustainable facility development (R² = 0.710, F(5, 94) = 46.01, p < 0.001). Facility infrastructure (β = 0.712, p < 0.001) and financial sustainability (β = 0.653, p < 0.001) emerged as the strongest predictors, followed by leadership capacity (β = 0.387, p = 0.003), policy and governance (β = 0.312, p < 0.001), and leisure participation (β = 0.298, p = 0.001).

Conclusion. These results demonstrate that Ethiopian university sports facilities face substantial structural and systemic challenges. Achieving long-term facility sustainability requires an integrated approach: enhancing infrastructure quality, securing diversified funding, strengthening leadership capacity, enforcing governance policies, and promoting student leisure engagement. Addressing these key areas together is essential for establishing resilient, well-maintained sports facilities across higher education institutions.

Augmented Reality in Secondary School Physical Education and Physical Literacy: Literature Review

2026-08-15T21:06:57+03:00

Objectives. Although augmented reality (AR) is increasingly used in physical education, empirical evidence regarding its contribution to secondary school students' physical literacy remains scattered across different research designs, learning contexts, and outcomes. The purpose of this study was to synthesize empirical evidence regarding the use of AR in secondary school physical education and to map its contribution to outcomes conceptually related to physical literacy domains.

Materials and methods. This study used a literature review design with reference to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Article searches were conducted in six databases, namely Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and Google Scholar. The search was limited to peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2015 and 2025. The keywords used combined terms related to augmented reality, physical education, secondary school, and outcomes related to physical literacy. A total of 1,061 articles were identified. After removing duplicate articles, screening titles and abstracts, assessing full texts, and evaluating eligibility, 7 articles met the inclusion criteria. Data were analyzed using narrative synthesis and thematic synthesis based on four domains of physical literacy: physical competence, motivation and confidence, knowledge and understanding, and physical activity engagement or participation. Methodological quality and risk of bias were assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT), and the strength of evidence was mapped using explicit coding criteria.

Results. The findings indicate that AR may support several outcomes conceptually related to physical literacy in secondary school physical education. AR-based learning can improve motor skills, sport-specific competencies, motivation, self-confidence, understanding of movement concepts, learning engagement, and physical activity participation. The strongest evidence was found in the domains of physical competence, motivation and self-confidence, and knowledge and understanding. Furthermore, AR-based game-based learning and AR-based outdoor activities also supported increased student engagement and physical activity. However, none of the included studies measured physical literacy as a complete multidimensional construct, so the results should be interpreted as evidence of physical literacy-related outcomes rather than direct evidence of overall physical literacy development.

Conclusions. AR has potential as a supportive pedagogical medium for promoting outcomes related to physical literacy in secondary school physical education. However, its effectiveness is highly dependent on the learning design, teacher preparedness, learning objectives, and the integration of AR with real-life physical activities. Future research is expected to develop more structured and long-term augmented reality interventions that explicitly measure students' physical literacy multidimensionally.